Dispositional Correlates of Informal Volunteering

The present study investigated dispositional variables that underlie informal volunteering, service that occurs outside of any organizational structure. Dispositional variables previously related to formal volunteering, individualism/collectivism and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, were examined along with perceived locus of control. Time spent in informal service was related to collectivism, intrinsic motivation, and an internal locus of control. The relationship of these traits to volunteer activity distinguishes the present findings from prior examinations of formal volunteerism. In those studies, neither individualism/collectivism nor intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation was related to time spent helping but did influence motives for volunteering. INTRODUCTION In the last decade, investigations of prosocial behavior shifted from spontaneous helping in emergencies (e.g., Latane & Darley, 1969) to sustained non-obligated service such as volunteerism. The research largely focused on formal volunteering, defined as unpaid work carried out under the auspices of an organization (e.g., Penner, 2002). Our own studies of formal (e.g., Finkelstein, 2009, 2010; Finkelstein, Penner, & Brannick, 2005) and informal (Finkelstein & Brannick, 2007) volunteering examined the role of individual variables in initiating and sustaining the activity. The data supported a model that integrated two approaches to understanding sustaining volunteering. The first, functional analysis (e.g., Clary et al., 1998; Omoto & Snyder, 2002) emphasizes the antecedents of volunteering, specifically one’s motives for helping. People are thought to volunteer in order to satisfy specific needs or motives. Different individuals will participate in the same volunteer work for different reasons, and an individual’s motives may change over times. Role identity theory (e.g., Callero, Howard, & Piliavin, 1987; Grube & Piliavin, 2000) focuses on factors that sustain volunteering. According to this perspective, one’s self-concept consists of a hierarchy of social role identities that guide behavior. With continued activity, a given role, such as that of volunteer, is internalized. This new identity drives future behavior as the individual strives to make his or her behavior consistent with the changed self-concept. Recently we explored the association between volunteer motives and identity, respectively and individualism/collectivism (Finkelstein, 2010). The constructs initially distinguished among cultures (Hofstede, 1980) but have since been applied to the individual. As such, individualism and collectivism represent personality traits, albeit traits that are adaptable to situational demands (Triandis, 2001). Fundamental to the individualist is a focus on autonomy, on independence and self-fulfillment. Personal goals take precedence over group goals and personal attitudes over group norms. In contrast, collectivists define themselves in terms of their group membership. They will submerge personal goals for the good of the whole and maintain relationships with the group even when the cost to the individual exceeds the benefits. In our volunteer data, collectivism was associated more than individualism with two motives for volunteering: to satisfy altruistic tendencies and to strengthen social ties. Collectivism also correlated with the development of a volunteer self-concept. In contrast, individualism was strongly associated with career-related objectives for helping and was unrelated to the formation of a volunteer identity. However, no difference emerged between individualists and collectivists in amount of time devoted to volunteer service. The results suggested that the two differ, not in their willingness to volunteer, but in their reasons for helping. Other dispositional variables systematically related to formal volunteering include intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivational tendencies (Finkelstein, 2009). An intrinsically motivated individual engages in an activity because it is inherently interesting or satisfying; intrinsically motivated activities are a form of self-expression, with the objective residing in the behavior itself (Amabile, 1993). Extrinsically motivated individuals undertake a task in order to obtain some separable outcome. Their aim is to acquire external rewards or avoid negative consequences (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation correlated positively with the formation of a volunteer role identity and with time spent volunteering. An intrinsic orientation also was associated with “internal” motives for volunteering, those that can be satisfied by the volunteer activity itself. Such motives included expressing altruistic values, strengthening social ties, acquiring new learning experiences and exercising one’s skills, increasing self-esteem, and alleviating guilt regarding one’s good fortune. Extrinsic orientation was most closely associated with “external” motives (specifically career aspirations), which require an outcome separate from the volunteer work in order to be fulfilled. The present study extended our investigation of the role of these variables to informal volunteering. The term applies to ongoing, unpaid services that individuals perform outside of any organizational structure (Finkelstein & Brannick, 2007). Like organization-based helping, informal volunteering provides critical services to communities (e.g., Wilson & Musick, 1997). An AARP (2003) survey of Americans age 45 and older reported that 51% of respondents engaged in formal volunteering, while an additional 36% indicated that they performed a variety of activities that benefit specific individuals or the community as a whole. We examined the influence of individualist v. collectivist tendencies and intrinsic v. extrinsic motivational orientation. We also added a construct that we anticipated would be particularly important to informal volunteering: perceived locus of control. Locus of control People differ in the extent to which they believe they determine the outcomes of events that affect them. The concept of “locus of control” refers to one’s perception about the underlying causes of events in his or her life. Those who perceive personal traits and efforts as determinative are said to possess an internal locus of control (Rotter, 1966; 1989) and are referred to as internals. In contrast, externals believe that events are controlled by fate, chance, or other external circumstances. To externals, the course of their lives is contingent on forces outside themselves. Locus of control is conceptualized as a continuum, ranging from external to internal. One’s perceived locus of control (LOC) can affect, and is affected by, volunteer activity. A longitudinal study by Thoits & Hewitt (2001) showed that volunteer work enhanced feelings of mastery. We added LOC to our study of informal volunteerism because of its private, individualized nature relative to formal volunteering. We reasoned that the absence of organizational support likely requires the individual to assume a greater role in determining how and when to help, making informal service more suited to internals. Hypotheses Prior work (Finkelstein, 2010) indicated that collectivism correlates more closely than individualism with volunteering that is motivated by the desire to strengthen social ties. Volunteer service by collectivists predominantly focuses on in-group members (Batson, Ahmad, & Tsang, 2002; Rhee, Uleman, & Lee, 1996). These findings suggested that collectivists will prefer volunteer opportunities that allow them to help people who are familiar to them rather than strangers. This is more likely to characterize informal volunteering than service in an organizational setting. Hypothesis 1. Collectivism will be more closely associated than individualism with informal volunteering. Because of the lack of organizational context, informal helping is less public than formal volunteerism, and external rewards such as career advancement are less likely to result. Consequently, we expected informal service to appeal more to intrinsically than extrinsically motivated individuals. Hypothesis 2. An intrinsic motivational orientation will be associated more closely than an extrinsic orientation with informal volunteering. With no organizational staff to define the tasks and guide the informal volunteer, the individual is responsible for shaping his or her volunteer activity. Internals seek situations that require personal control. In a competitive game, internals were less likely than externals to rely on their opponents’ expertise, even when that reliance would garner them additional points (Julian & Katz, 1968). This tendency should make internals more likely than externals to feel comfortable with the relative lack of structure in informal volunteering. This view of LOC finds parallels in the workplace. Internals seek autonomy which in turn enhances job satisfaction (e.g., Spector & O’Connell, 1994). Externals may remain in positions, not because of satisfaction with them, but because of fear of change (Jain, Giga, & Cooper, 2009). Assuming a similar need for predictability of volunteer activity, the lack of structure that defines informal service may present difficulties for those with an external LOC. Hypothesis 3. An internal LOC will correlate positively with time spent in informal volunteer service.